The taxonomic composition of medieval wood finds from western Europe has been well studied, for instance, from Charavines, France, Elisenhof and Haithabu, Germany (Müller 2008 and the literature cited) and Oberflacht, Germany (Filzer 1992). 2000) or Žemutinė Pilias (Lower Castle) in Vilnius (Pukienė 2008) are examples of botanical analyses of useful wood from central and eastern Europe. The studies of wooden objects from the Mikulčice site in the Czech Republic (Poláček et al. A few papers about the kinds of timber used for making wooden objects have a local character and are mostly published in Polish (Table 1). The available archaeological reports which describe the assemblages of wooden artefacts from Polish sites most often concentrate on the form and function of the objects and the type of woodworking techniques used (Dziekoński and Kóčka 1939 Rulewicz 1958 Wilgocki 1995 Earwood 2002/2003 Słowiński 2004). So far, no detailed botanical analyses of medieval objects of everyday use have been carried out in Poland which have reviewed the results of wood anatomical investigations from either a few sites or whole regions. The selective use of some kinds of wood could result in changes to the taxonomic composition of woodlands. Recognising how various kinds of timber were used in medieval crafts is significant for understanding both the woodworking techniques and the management of woodlands by medieval societies. The great diversity of functions and dimensions of everyday wooden objects which have been found in many medieval archaeological sites raises questions about the identification of the timber used. Similar evidence was also provided by archaeological investigations in Poland, such as at Ostrówek in Opole (Bukowska-Gedigowa and Gediga 1986) or Rynek Warzywny in Szczecin, where objects made of wood and bark formed the second most significant group of finds, after those made of leather (Kowalska and Dworaczyk 2011). 2000) or in an early medieval cemetery in Oberflacht, Germany (Filzer 1992), where numerous everyday wooden objects were discovered. This has been shown by archaeological excavations carried out on sites containing well preserved organic material in, for instance, Novgorod, Russia (Brisbane and Hather 2007), Mikulčice, Czech Republic (Poláček et al. In medieval Europe, timber was both one of the most important and readily available raw materials which was used in various commercial fields and absolutely essential for making all kinds of items used in everyday life (Mączak 1981 Sönke 2000 Miśkiewicz 2010). Chronological analysis of the use of wood shows that the number of items made of timber from deciduous trees in all regions of Poland decreased in the late Middle Ages when compared to the Piast period of the early Middle Ages. Regional differentiation in the selection of raw material is best indicated in the case of Abies alba (fir). The choice of wood for the specific needs of a particular craft in medieval Poland was done selectively and it was determined by the particular function of the object being made, but at the same time it was limited by availability from the local woodlands. Also, the wood of shrubs such as Euonymus sp. Wood studies agree with historical records about the intensive use of yew wood, which finally caused the decrease of Taxus baccata in woodlands in the 14th and 15th centuries. Ash wood was the main material used for making turned bowls, and alder for making articles which were to be in long-lasting contact with water, such as beaters and scoops. Pine was used mainly to make vessels out of staves (curved pieces of wood) such as buckets and tubs, and for torches for lighting oak was used for furniture, barrels, cart axles, spades and club hammers used by carpenters. (oak), Fraxinus excelsior (ash) and Alnus sp. The timber used the most was Pinus sylvestris (pine), Quercus sp. The analyses have shown that medieval craftsmen used the wood of 27 tree and shrub taxa. This article presents the results of the wood identification of 3,867 everyday objects dated from the 9th to the 15th century ad, which were excavated from 48 medieval strongholds and early urban centres in Poland.
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